Iago, By William Shakespeare - 1669 Words

In William Shakespeare’s Othello, the antagonist Iago is arguably the most heinous villain in all of literature. His ability to shape shift in and out of character is what makes him unique. His tactics are similar to that of a cold blooded chameleon. Iago’s art of persuasion, his mastery of rhetoric as well as his ability to sense his victims’ insecurities and weaknesses, is what makes him so diabolically ruthless. Throughout the play, one can truly see the power of words and their delivery, and the massive influence that they can have over people. Iago employs charlatan techniques to appeal to his victims’ emotional, logical and ethical weaknesses for his own selfish political gain. Iago’s rhetorical methods entrances many of the key characters and leads them to arrive at the assumptions he wants them to reach. Through these methods, Iago is able to transform Othello from a calm, collected, composed general to an insecure, emotional, and mal leable puppet. Through his manipulation of all the key characters, Iago is nonetheless able to remain in favored perception, as he is ironically referred to as â€Å"honest Iago†. What makes Iago so intriguing, is his ability to carry out his selfish agenda without being detected. Iago utilizes reverse psychology, indirect insinuations, and explicit imagery to deceive others and force them under his spell. Iago’s intentions are always veiled throughout the play. Iago uses a plethora of rhetorical strategies primarily againstShow MoreRelatedThe Concept Of Iago By William Shakespeare1163 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"The Concept of Iago† William Shakespeare’s plays all have a common theme: death. There is almost always death, and the play of â€Å"Othello† is no different since it ends in a â€Å"tragedy.† It begins with a man named Iago who speaks to Roderigo of how he should have received the position of lieutenant that was instead given to Cassio, a inexperienced man in his words, by Othello, the General. Iago shows distaste towards Othello, the play then goes through the story of Iago attempting to receive the positionRead MoreIago, By William Shakespeare1563 Words   |  7 PagesShakespeare’s malicious characters, Iago seems to be one of a kind. At the beginning of the play, Iago is described as a character who is a good liar with a silver tongued eloquence. However, he turns out be a more villain in the end, putting other characters in peril without any justifiable reason. In Act 1 Scene 1 (Shakespeare, 1997), Iago shows discontentment toward Othello for placing him as lieutenant in stead of promotion. This part clearly shows why Iago is upset and feels hatred. However,Read MoreThe Character of Iago in William Shakespeare Essay665 Words   |  3 PagesThe Character of Iago in William Shakespeare In the extract Iago truly shows himself to be a man of great impression upon people around him, and mostly of course people of his choice, in this case Roderigo being his victim of persuasion. Most importantly to be regarded is that Iagos methods are structured almost completely behind the way in which he communicates, and put Read MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Othello - The Jealous Iago !1171 Words   |  5 Pages1102 The Jealous Iago! Jealousy is a strong emotion which everyone has experienced in some point or time in their life. Throughout Othello by William Shakespeare, the character Iago is known as â€Å"honest Iago† and deals with the roots of jealously. Iago uses jealousy, lies, and deception to manipulate and hurt other characters for his own personal gain. Iago is consumed with jealousy for Michael Cassio and Othello because he was not chosen as lieutenant, and Cassio was. Because of Iago jealously and hatredRead MoreIago By William Shakespeare s Othello Essay914 Words   |  4 Pageson today. Behind every lie, there is a motive for doing so. In Shakespeare s Othello, Iago is no exception to this rule. He is living a dual life of lies. On one face Iago is a trustworthy friend who is attempting to set up Roderigo with the love of his life. His other face is the one whose main goal is to be the Lieutenant of the Venetian Army. In order to reach that status he must ruin the relationship of Cassio an d Othello. Iago uses each other character against others and against themselvesRead MoreIago By William Shakespeare s Othello946 Words   |  4 Pages Iago’s selfish ways may stem from deep-rooted envy. Cassio, a handsome, well-mannered, likeable strategist was promoted above Iago, despite having no practical experience; unlike Iago who has been Othello’s ensign on the field for many years. Iago’s contempt for Cassio’s â€Å"bookish theoric† as â€Å"mere prattle, without practise† is grounded in jealousy, and his dismissive way of comparing strategy to fighting on the battlefield reveals his dislike of Cassio early in the first scene of the play. In thisRead MoreIago By William Shakespeare s Othello1292 Words   |  6 PagesIago is able to manipulate different characters throughout Othello by appearing to be honest and trustworthy, and using this to make people believe what he is saying is the truth. This means that Iago can tell them what he wants, in order to achieve whatever he desires. Simply, Iago is a two-faced character. A very ironic part of the play is when Iago says, â€Å"By J anus†, as Janus is a two- faced Roman god. The first person/character is Rodrigo. Rodrigo is blinded by his love for Desdemona and is preparedRead MoreIago ´s Facade in William Shakespeare ´s Othello520 Words   |  2 Pagesdescribes the villainous Iago better than this. Iago hides behind the faà §ade of a loyal soldier while secretly manipulating the world around him not only for personal gain but also in order to ruin the lives of those he feels have wronged him. Even those close to Iago, such as his loyal servant Roderigo, who think they know him, are being deceived. Throughout the play Iago shows his ability to manipulate people based on their good traits, one key example being Othello. Iago ruins Othello’s life byRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Othello - A Diagnosis Of Literary Character, Iago1460 Words   |  6 Pages A Diagnosis of literary Character,Iago In a Shakespearean tragedy, no man is left out in the vicious storyline of fate. Meaning in every situation there must be a character that is fraudulent and misleading. To which this character would tell false lies to hopefully make the plot end in disaster. In the dramatic play Othello, Shakespeare unleashes the tale of an interracial marriage between a Moor (Othello) and a Venetian woman. Which continuously builds on internal dialogue, race, genderRead MoreBetraying and Lying in Othello by William Shakespeare1726 Words   |  7 Pagesuntruthfulness are a keen description of Iago. Iago causes pain in a lot of the characters life because he is unhappy about his life; Therefore, Iago is the main problem in everyone’s life. In Othello the main characters are Othello, Desdemona, Iago, and Cassio. Iago causes great conflict between Othello and Desdemona, along with Cassio and Othello. Iago causes all the conflict because he is angry at Othello for making Cassio lieutenant. After Iago put his plan in action he led Othello to a

Evaluate the Methods Used by the Psychodynamic Approach

Charlotte King Orion 12 Psychology EXAM QUESTIONS Evaluate methods used by the psychodynamic approach. One of the methods used by the psychodynamic approach is case studies. Case studies are used to practice their therapy on to see if it actually works. The therapy created by Sigmund Freud, is called psychoanalysis. An example of one of the case studies would be the case study of Little Hans. Hans was at the age where he noticed he had a penis and therefore played with it a lot. His mother noticed this and told him to stop it otherwise she would call the doctor and get him to cut it off. Hans later on developed a phobia of horses, so his father got in touch with Freud and told him about Hans’ strange behaviour and he suggested that†¦show more content†¦Secondary elaboration occurs when the unconscious mind strings together wish-fulfilling images in a logical order of events, further obscuring the latent content. According to Freud this is why the manifest content of dreams can be in the form of believable events. On 24 July 1895, Freud had his own dream that was to form the basis of his theory. He had been worried about a patient, Irma, who was not doing as well in treatment as he had hoped. Freud in blamed himself for this, and was feeling guilty. Freud dreamed that he met Irma at a party and examined her. He then saw a chemical formula for a drug that another doctor had given Irma flash before his eyes and realised that her condition was caused by a dirty syringe used by the other doctor. Freud was no longer guilty. Freud interpreted this dream as wish-fulfilment. He had wished that Irma s poor condition was not his fault and the dream had fulfilled this wish by informing him that another doctor was at fault. Based on this dream, Freud went on to propose that a major function of dreams was the fulfilment of wishes. Another method used in psychoanalysis is free association. Free Association or the Talking Cure is based on the psychodynamic model of abnormality. Psychotherapy places great significance on childhood experiences, such as the psychosexual stages, and on repressed impulses and unresolved conflicts in the unconscious. The aim of psychotherapy is to bringShow MoreRelatedThe Philosophy Of Psychology Is Defined As The Scientific Study Of The Human Mind And Behavior1281 Words   |  6 Pages‘Discourse on method’ (1637) and ‘The mediations’ (1641). It claims of the mind and the body being of two separate entities that come together to create the human experience. During the 18th century, the first psychological laboratory was established in Leipzig, Germany by Wilhelm Wundt (1879) who is also known as the father of psychology. Wundt brought about the theory of structuralism, where he used introspection to focus on the basic elements of consciousness. However, this method was seen to beRead MoreCognitive Theories And Theories Of Psychology1526 Words   |  7 Pagesorder to understand certain behavior. The most common approaches in psychology are psychodynamic, behavior, cognitive, humanistic, and biological approaches. The ultimate goal of each method is to help individuals change unhealthy thoughts, behaviors, and emotions. However, these different approaches use different techniques to form assumptions and explanations about abnormality. In this essay, cognitive and psychodynamic are the two approaches that will be discussed. Even though these two approachesRead MoreWeakness in Sigmound Freud’s Theories799 Words   |  4 PagesThis essay will attempt to highlight and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the three main theories of counselling within the module covered this term. The three approaches in discussion are psychodynamics, cognitive behavioural and humanistic. The psychodynamic theory originated from Sigmund Freud, a medical doctor and philosopher (1856 - 1939) founded in the 1900s. Freud developed his ideas whilst working as a psychiatrist in Vienna, collecting information from his patients such as feelingsRead MorePsychodynamic Theories And Theories Of The Psychodynamic Theory Essay1702 Words   |  7 Pages This paper attempts to explore psychodynamic theory in depth as well as its presentation in real life as presented by Sigmund Freud. It presents an analysis of the theory in terms of its historical developments and perspectives as well as the ideas of its main supporters. Further, the paper also attempts to bring to light the hidden and unambiguous assumptions made by the theory concerning individuals, groups, families, systems and communities. Additionally, It will attempt to highlight the relationshipRead MoreEvaluating the Main Theories of Counselling Essay1695 Words   |  7 PagesThis essay will attempt to highlight and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the three main theories of counselling within the module covered this term. The three approaches in discussion are psychodynamics, cognitive behavioural and humanistic. The psychodynamic theory originated from Sigmund Freud, a medical doctor and philosopher (1856 - 1939) founded in the 1900s. Freud developed his ideas whilst working as a psychiatrist in Vienna, collecting information from his patients such as feelingsRead MoreBriefly Outline the Key Features of a Cognitive-Behavioural Approach to Counselling1478 Words   |  6 Pagescognitive-behavioural approach to counselling and discuss some of the ways in which this approach differs from one of the other main approaches to counselling. In part two reflect on and write about which of the two approaches discussed in your essay you prefer and why. This essay will explain key aspects of a cognitive-behavioural approach to counselling. Revealing how this method of counselling differs from the psychodynamic approach, and demonstrating my preferred method. The first of these approachesRead Morecounselling theory essay1690 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction In this essay I will describe key elements of Psychodynamic theory, Person-Centred theory and Cognitive-Behavioural theory. I will also identify the key differences between the above theories. I shall also describe how counselling theory underpins the use of counselling skills in practise. I will then end with my conclusion. 1.1 Key elements of psychodynamic theory Dr Sigmud Freud (1856-1939), is the founder of the psychodynamic approach. Dr Sigmud Freud believed that childhood experiencesRead MorePsychodynamic Perspectives : The Psychodynamic Perspective1345 Words   |  6 PagesThe Psychodynamic Perspective: The Psychodynamic perspective in Psychology examines the theory that our personality and mental disorders are created outside of our awareness by processes in our unconscious mind. It examines the idea that our unconscious outweighs our actual consciousness and that there is more than what we credit ourselves for and/or are potentially unconsciously blocking. One of the best known approaches of this perspective is by using psychoanalysis. This approach highlights andRead MorePersonality, Cognitive, And Learning Approach Essay1878 Words   |  8 Pageson empirical studies while others are based on clinical case studies or theories. Some common aspects of personality include psychodynamic, trait approach, cognitive, genetic, and learning approach. The cognitive approach emphasizes how our behavior is influenced by how we process, mentally represent, and store information. Psychologists who take the cognitive approach suggests that mental processes can help us understand several ki nds of social and individual behaviors, from problem solving,Read MoreTheories Of Classical Conditioning, Psychodynamic, Cognitive And Humanistic1224 Words   |  5 PagesThere are four theoretical approaches in Psychology. In this essay I will evaluate and analyse the four main approaches which are: Behaviourist, Psychodynamic, Cognitive and Humanistic. Behaviourists believe that everyone is born as a ‘blank slate’ and that all behaviours are learned through interaction with the environment around you. They believe that we learn new behaviour through classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning theory. Classical conditioning occurs when two

Cellular System Components Free Essays

string(275) " is used over many of the GSM network interfaces; †¢ base station system application part \(BSSAP\) – BSSAP is used over the A interface; †¢ direct transfer application part \(DTAP\) – DTAP is used between MS and MSC; DTAP is carried over the Abis and the A interface\." Introduction to GSM Networks Figure 1. 1 is a schematic overview of the main components in a GSM network. The various interface labels are the formal names given to these interfaces. We will write a custom essay sample on Cellular System Components or any similar topic only for you Order Now More details about these interfaces are found in GSM TS 03. 02 [26]. The GSM network consists mainly of the following functional parts: †¢ MSC – the mobile service switching centre (MSC) is the core switching entity in the network. The MSC is connected to the radio access network (RAN); the RAN is formed by the BSCs and BTSs within the Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN). Users of the GSM network are registered with an MSC; all calls to and from the user are controlled by the MSC. A GSM network has one or more MSCs, geographically distributed. †¢ VLR – the visitor location register (VLR) contains subscriber data for subscribers registered in an MSC. Every MSC contains a VLR. Although MSC and VLR are individually addressable, they are always contained in one integrated node. †¢ GMSC – the gateway MSC (GMSC) is the switching entity that controls mobile terminating calls. When a call is established towards a GSM subscriber, a GMSC contacts the HLR of that subscriber, to obtain the address of the MSC where that subscriber is currently registered. That MSC address is used to route the call to that subscriber. †¢ HLR – the home location register (HLR) is the database that contains a subscription record for each subscriber of the network. A GSM subscriber is normally associated with one particular HLR. The HLR is responsible for the sending of subscription data to the VLR (during registration) or GMSC (during mobile terminating call handling). CN – the core network (CN) consists of, amongst other things, MSC(s), GMSC(s) and HLR(s). These entities are the main components for call handling and subscriber management. Other main entities in the CN are the equipment identi? cation register (EIR) and authentication centre (AUC). CAMEL has no interaction with the EIR and AUC; hence EIR and AUC are not further discussed. †¢ BSS – th e base station system (BSS) is composed of one or more base station controllers (BSC) and one or more base transceiver stations (BTS). The BTS contains one or more transceivers (TRX). The TRX is responsible for radio signal transmission and reception. BTS and BSC are connected through the Abis interface. The BSS is connected to the MSC through the A interface. †¢ MS – the mobile station (MS) is the GSM handset. The structure of the MS will be described in more detail in a next section. A GSM network is a public land mobile network (PLMN). Other types of PLMN are the time division multiple access (TDMA) network or code division multiple access (CDMA) network. GSM uses the following sub-division of the PLMN: CAMEL: Intelligent Networks for the GSM, GPRS and UMTS Network ? 006 John Wiley Sons, Ltd Rogier Noldus 2 CAMEL: Intelligent Networks for the GSM, GPRS and UMTS Network To HLR from other PLMN D HLR D C Core network To/from other network MSC ISUP E MSC A BSC Abis BTS Um Um A ISUP GMSC ISUP BSC Abis BTS Um Um Base station system Air interface MS MS MS MS Figure 1. 1 GSM network architecture †¢ Home PLMN (HPLMN) – the HPLMN is the GSM netwo rk that a GSM user is a subscriber of. That implies that GSM user’s subscription data resides in the HLR in that PLMN. The HLR may transfer the subscription data to a VLR (during registration in a PLMN) or a GMSC (during mobile terminating call handling). The HPLMN may also contain various service nodes, such as a short message service centre (SMSC), service control point (SCP), etc. †¢ Visited PLMN (VPLMN) – the VPLMN is the GSM network where a subscriber is currently registered. The subscriber may be registered in her HPLMN or in another PLMN. In the latter case, the subscriber is outbound roaming (from HPLMN’s perspective) and inbound roaming (from VPLMN’s perspective). When the subscriber is currently registered in her HPLMN, then the HPLMN is at the same time VPLMN. 1 †¢ Interrogating PLMN (IPLMN) – the IPLMN is the PLMN containing the GMSC that handles mobile terminating (MT) calls. MT calls are always handled by a GMSC in the PLMN, regardless of the origin of the call. For most operators, MT call handling is done by a GMSC in the HPLMN; in that case, the HPLMN is at the same time IPLMN. This implies that calls destined for a GSM subscriber are always routed to the HPLMN of that GSM subscriber. Once the call has arrived in the HPLMN, the HPLMN acts as IPLMN. MT call handling will be described in more detail in subsequent sections. When basic optimal routing (BOR) is applied, the IPLMN is not the same PLMN as the HPLMN. The user of a GSM network is referred to as the served subscriber ; the MSC that is serving that subscriber is known as the serving MSC. Examples are: †¢ mobile originated call – the MSC that is handling the call is the serving MSC for this call; the calling subscriber is the served subscriber; †¢ mobile terminated call – the GMSC that is handling the call is the serving GMSC for this call; the called subscriber is the served subscriber. 1 The CAMEL service requirement, GSM TS 02. 78 [12] uses this strict de? nition. The term VPLMN is, however, commonly used to denote any network other than the HPLMN. Introduction to GSM Networks 3 1. 1 Signalling in GSM The various entities in the GSM network are connected to one another through signalling networks. Signalling is used for example, for subscriber mobility, subscriber registration, call establishment, etc. The connections to the various entities are known as ‘reference points’. Examples include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ A interface – the connection between MSC and BSC; Abis interface – the connection between BSC and BTS; D interface – the connection between MSC and HLR; Um interface – the radio connection between MS and BTS. Various signalling protocols are used over the reference points. Some of these protocols for GSM are the following: †¢ mobile application part (MAP) – MAP is used for call control, subscriber registration, short message service, etc. ; MAP is used over many of the GSM network interfaces; †¢ base station system application part (BSSAP) – BSSAP is used over the A interface; †¢ direct transfer application part (DTAP) – DTAP is used between MS and MSC; DTAP is carried over the Abis and the A interface. You read "Cellular System Components" in category "Papers" DTAP is speci? ed in GSM TS 04. 08 [49]; †¢ ISDN user part (ISUP) – ISUP is the protocol for establishing and releasing circuit switched calls. ISUP is also used in landline Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN). A circuit is the data channel that is established between two users in the network. Within ISDN, the data channel is generally a 64 kbit/s channel. The circuit is used for the transfer of the encoded speech or other data. ISUP is speci? ed in ITU-T Q. 763 [137]. When it comes to call establishment, GSM makes a distinction between signalling and payload. Signalling refers to the exchange of information for call set up; payload refers to the data that is transferred within a call, i. e. voice, video, fax etc. For a mobile terminated GSM call, the signalling consists of exchange of MAP messages between GMSC, HLR and visited MSC (VMSC). The payload is transferred by the ISUP connection between GMSC and VMSC. It is a continual aim to optimize the payload transfer through the network, as payload transfer has a direct cost aspect associated with it. Some network services are designed to optimize the payload transfer. One example is optimal routing. 1. 2 GSM Mobility Roaming with GSM is made possible through the separation of switching capability and subscription data. A GSM subscriber has her subscription data, including CAMEL data, permanently registered in the HLR in her HPLMN. The GSM operator is responsible for provisioning this data in the HLR. The MSC and GMSC in a PLMN, on the other hand, are not speci? c for one subscriber group. The switching capability of the MSC in a PLMN may be used by that PLMN’s own subscribers, but also by inbound roaming subscribers; see Figure 1. 2. In Figure 1. 2, the GSM user who is a subscriber of PLMN-A roams to PLMN-B. The HLR in PLMN-A transfers the user’s subscription data to the MSC in PLMN-B. The subscriber’s subscription data remains in the MSC/VLR as long as she is served by a BSS that is connected to that MSC. Even when the user switches her MS off and then on again, the subscription data remains in the MSC. After an extended period of the MS being switched off, the subscription data will be purged from the MSC. When the subscriber switches her MS on again, the subscriber has to re-register with the MSC, which entails the MSC asking the HLR in the HPLMN to re-send the subscription data for that subscriber. 4 CAMEL: Intelligent Networks for the GSM, GPRS and UMTS Network Transfer of subscription data to MSC/VLR HLR PLMN-A MSC MS Subscriber roams to other PLMN PLMN-B MSC Figure 1. 2 Transfer of GSM subscription data for a roaming subscriber When the subscriber moves from one MSC service area (MSC-1) to another MSC service area (MSC-2), the HLR will instruct MSC-1 to purge the subscription data of this subscriber and will send the subscription data to MSC-2. 1. 3 Mobile Station The MS, i. e. the GSM handset, is logically built up from the following components: †¢ mobile equipment (ME) – this is the GSM terminal, excluding the SIM card; †¢ subscriber identi? ation module (SIM) – this is the chip embedded in the SIM card that identi? es a subscriber of a GSM network; the SIM is embedded in the SIM card. When the SIM card is inserted in the ME, the subscriber may register with a GSM network. The ME is now effectively personalized for this GSM subscriber; see Figure 1. 3. The characteristics of the SIM are speci? ed in GSM TS 11. 11 . The SIM card contains information such as IMSI, advice of charge parameters, operator-speci? c emergency number, etc. For the UMTS network an enhanced SIM is speci? ed, the universal subscriber identity module (USIM); refer 3GPP TS 31. 02. 1. 4 Identi? ers in the GSM Network GSM uses several identi? ers for the routing of calls, identifying subscribers (e. g. for charging), locating the HLR, identifying equipment, etc. Some of these identi? ers play an important role for CAMEL. 1. 4. 1 International Mobile Subscriber Identity The international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) is embedded on the SIM card and is used to identify a subscriber. The IMSI is also contained in the subscription data in the HLR. The IMSI is used for identifying a subscriber for various processes in the GSM network. Some of these are: KPN SIM + ME = MS Figure 1. 3 Components of the mobile station Introduction to GSM Networks 5 3 digits MCC Maximum 15 digits 2 or 3 digits MNC MSIN Figure 1. 4 Structure of the IMSI †¢ location update – when attaching to a network, the MS reports the IMSI to the MSC, which uses the IMSI to derive the global title (GT) of the HLR associated with the subscriber; †¢ terminating call – when the GSM network handles a call to a GSM subscriber, the HLR uses the IMSI to identify the subscriber in the MSC/VLR, to start a process for delivering the call to that subscriber in that MSC/VLR. †¢ roaming charging – a VPLMN uses the IMSI o send billing records to the HPLMN of a subscriber. Figure 1. 4 shows the format of the IMSI. †¢ mobile country code (MCC) – the MCC identi? es the country for mobile networks. The MCC is not used for call establishment. The usage of MCC is de? ned in ITU-T E. 212 [129]. The MCC values are allocated and published by the ITU-T. †¢ mobile network code (MNC) – the MNC identi? es the mobile network within a mobile country (as identi? ed by MCC). MCC and MNC together identify a PLMN. Refer to ITU-T E. 212 [129] for MNC usage. The MNC may be two or three digits in length. Common practice is that, within a country (as identi? d by MCC), all MNCs are either two or three digits. †¢ mobile subscriber identi? cation number (MSIN) – the MSIN is the subscriber identi? er within a PLMN. The IMSI is reported to the SCP during CAMEL service invocation. The IMSI may be needed, for example, when identifying a country; countries in North America have equal country code (country code = 1), but different MCC (e. g. Canada = 303; Mexico = 334). 1. 4. 2 Mobile Station Integrated Services Digital Network Number (MSISDN Number) The MSISDN is used to identify the subscriber when, among other things, establishing a call to that subscriber or sending an SMS to that subscriber. Hence, the MSISDN is used for routing purposes. Figure 1. 5 shows the structure of the MSISDN. †¢ country code (CC) – the CC identi? es the country or group of countries of the subscriber; †¢ national destination code (NDC) – each PLMN in a country has one or more NDCs allocated to it; the NDC may be used to route a call to the appropriate network; †¢ subscriber number (SN) – the SN identi? es the subscriber within the number plan of a PLMN. CC NDC SN 1, 2 or 3 digits Maximum 15 digits Figure 1. 5 Structure of the MSISDN 6 CAMEL: Intelligent Networks for the GSM, GPRS and UMTS Network IMEI TAC 6 digits FAC 2 digits FAC 2 digits SNR 6 digits SNR 6 digits spare 1 digit IMEISV TAC 6 digits SV 2 digits Figure 1. 6 Structure of IMEI and IMEISV The MSISDN is not stored on the subscriber’s SIM card and is normally not available in the MS. 2 The MSISDN is provisioned in the HLR, as part of the subscriber’s pro? le, and is sent to MSC during registration. The MSISDN is also reported to SCP when a CAMEL service is invoked. One subscriber may have multiple MSISDNs. These MSISDNs are provisioned in the HLR. At any one moment, only a single MSISDN is available in the MSC/VLR for the subscriber. . 4. 3 International Mobile Equipment Identi? er The international mobile equipment identi? er (IMEI) is used to identify the ME [or user equipment (UE) in UMTS network]. Each ME has a unique IMEI. The IMEI is hard-coded in the ME and cannot be modi? ed. Figure 1. 6 shows the structure of the IMEI. The IMEI is not used for routing or subscriber identi? cation. Refer to GSM TS 0 3. 03 [27] for the type approval code (TAC), ? nal assembly code (FAC) and serial number (SNR). The software version (SV) may be included in the IMEI (‘IMEISV’) to indicate the version of software embedded in the ME. The IMEI is always encoded as an eight-octet string. As from CAMEL Phase 4, the IMEI(SV) may be reported to the SCP. 1. 4. 4 Mobile Station Roaming Number The mobile station roaming number (MSRN) is used in the GSM network for routing a call to a MS. The need for the MSRN stems from the fact that the MSISDN identi? es a subscriber, but not the current location of that subscriber in a telecommunications network. The MSRN is allocated to a subscriber during MT call handling and is released when the call to that subscriber is established. Each MSC in a PLMN has a (limited) range of MSRNs allocated to it. An MSRN may be allocated to any subscriber registered in that MSC. The MSRN has the form of an E. 164 number and can be used by the GMSC for establishing a call to a GSM subscriber. An MSRN is part of a GSM operator’s number plan. The MSRN indicates the GSM network a subscriber is registered in, but not the GSM network the subscriber belongs to. Figure 1. 7 shows how the MSRN is used for call routing. The MSRN is not meant for call initiation. GSM operators may con? gure their MSC such that subscribers cannot dial numbers that fall within the MSRN range of that operator. 1. 5 Basic Services All activities that may be done in the GSM network, such as establishing a voice call, establishing a data call, sending a short message, etc. , are classi? ed as basic services. In order for a subscriber to use a GSM basic service, she must have a subscription to that service. 3 The handling of a basic 2 GSM subscribers may program their MSISDN into the phone; this has, however, no signi? cance for the network. 3 Exceptions are Tele Service 12 (emergency call establishment) and Tele Service 23 (Cell Broadcast). Subscribers do not need a subscription to these Tele Services to use them. Introduction to GSM Networks 7 return MSRN request MSRN HLR VMSC MSRN GMSC incoming call MSISDN Figure 1. 7 Usage of MSRN during call establishment to a GSM subscriber service is fully standardized. Hence, a subscriber may use a basic service in any GSM network she roams to, provided that that basic service is supported in that network. The HLR will send a list of subscribed basic services to the MSC/VLR, during registration. When a GSM subscriber initiates a call, the MS supplies the serving MSC with a set of parameters describing the circuitswitched connection that is requested. These parameters are the bearer capability (BC), low-layer compatibility (LLC) and high-layer compatibility (HLC), as will be described below. The MSC uses the BC, LLC and HLC to derive the basic service for this call. The rules for deriving the basic service from LLC, HLC and BC are speci? ed in GSM TS 09. 07 [55]. The MSC then checks whether the subscriber has a subscription to the requested basic service, i. e. whether the subscription data in the VLR contains that basic service. If the service is not subscribed to, then the MSC disallows the call. The basic service is not transported over ISUP. When a CAMEL service is invoked, the MSC reports the requested basic service to the SCP. The SCP may use the indication of the requested basic service for call service processing. Examples include: †¢ video calls may be charged at a higher rate than speech calls; †¢ for data calls and fax calls, the CAMEL service shall not play any announcements or tones. Basic services are divided into two groups: tele services and bearer services. 1. 5. 1 Tele Services Table 1. 1 provides an overview of the available tele services (TS); see also GSM TS 02. 03 [3]. 1. 5. 2 Bearer Services Table 1. provides an overview of the available bearer services (BS). The two bearer service groups are sub-divided into a variety of bearer services with different characteristics. Refer to GSM TS 02. 02 [2]. 1. 5. 3 Circuit Bearer Description Bearer capability, low-layer compatibility and high-layer compatibility are descriptors of a circuitswitched (CS) connection. When a GSM subscriber initiates a call , the BC, LLC and HLC are transported from MS to MSC over DTAP. The MSC includes the parameters in the ISUP signal to the destination. These parameters are also reported to the SCP during CAMEL service invocation. That enables a CAMEL service to adapt the service logic processing to the type of call. Figure 1. 8 shows the relation between LLC, HLC and BC on the DTAP and the corresponding parameters on ISUP. 8 CAMEL: Intelligent Networks for the GSM, GPRS and UMTS Network Table 1. 1 Tele service 11 12 Tele services Description Telephony Emergency calls Comment This TS represents the normal speech call The emergency call uses the characteristics of telephony (TS11), but may be established without subscription and bypasses various checks in the MS and in the MSC This TS relates to receiving an SMS. This TS is not sent to the MSC/VLR. When an SMS is sent to the subscriber, the HLR checks whether the destination subscriber has a subscription to TS 21 This TS relates to the sending of an SMS This TS relates to the capability of an SMS that is sent as a broadcast SMS This TS relates to the capability to establish a speech and fax (group 3) call This TS relates to the capability to establish a fax (group 3) call This TS relates to the capability to participate in a group call as speci? ed in GSM TS 03. 8 [35] This TS relates to the capability to receive a voice broadcast as speci? ed in GSM TS 03. 68 [35] 21 Short message MT 22 23 61 62 91 92 Short message MO Cell broadcast Alternate speech and fax group 3 Automatic fax group 3 Voice group call Voice broadcast Table 1. 2 Tele service 20 30 Bearer services Description Asynchronous data bearer services Synchronous data bearer services Comment May be used for asynchronous services from 300 bit/s to 64 kbit/s. May be used for synchronou s services from 1. 2 to 64 kbit/s. This BS may be used, amongst other things, for multimedia services such as video telephony. 4 DTAP (GSM TS 04. 08) Low layer compatibility High layer compatibility Bearer capability MSC ISUP (ITU-T Q. 763) Access transport [low layer compatibility] User teleservice information User service information Figure 1. 8 Transfer of LLC, HLC and BC through DTAP and ISUP †¢ Low-layer compatibility – the LLC is transported transparently between the calling entity and called entity; it may be used by the respective entities to adapt codecs for interworking purposes. LLC describes mainly characteristics related to the data transfer. 4 3GPP Rel-7 may include a dedicated bearer service for video telephony. Introduction to GSM Networks 9 †¢ High-layer compatibility – the HLC is also transported transparently between the calling entity and called entity; it is used to describe the requested service, such as telephony, Fax, video telephony, etc. †¢ Bearer capability – the BC describes the characteristics of the 64 kbit/s circuit requested for the call. 1. 6 Supplementary Services Supplementary services (SS) in GSM are a means of enriching the user experience. An SS may, for example, forward a call in the case of no reply from the called party, bar certain outgoing or incoming calls, show the number of the calling party to the called party, etc. In order to use an SS, a GSM user needs a subscription to that SS. The subscription to supplementary services is contained in the HLR and is sent to the MSC/VLR during registration. The supplementary services are fully standardized. A GSM subscriber can therefore use her supplementary services in any GSM network, provided that the network supports these supplementary services, and have the same user experience. Table 1. 3 SS group Line identi? cation GSM supplementary services Supplementary services Calling line identi? cation presentation (CLIP) Calling line identi? cation restriction (CLIR) Connected line presentation (COLP) Connected line restriction (COLR) Calling name presentation (CNAP) Call forwarding – unconditional (CFU) Call forwarding – busy (CFB) Call forwarding – no reply (CFNRY) Call forwarding – not reachable (CFNRC) Call de? ction (CD) Explicit call transfer (ECT) Call waiting (CW) Call hold (CH) Call completion to busy subscriber (CCBS) Multi-call (MC) Multi-party call (MPTY) Closed user group (CUG) Advice of charge – information (AOCI) Advice of charge – charge (AOCC) User-to-user signalling – service 1 (UUS1) User-to-user signalling – service 2 (UUS2) User-to-user signalling – service 3 (UUS3) Barring of all outgoing calls (BAOC) Barring of outgoing international calls (BOIC) Barring of outgoing international calls except to the home country (BOIC-exHc) Barring of all ncoming calls (BAIC) Barring of all incoming calls when roaming (BICROAM) enhanced multi-level precedence and pre-emption (eMLPP) GSM TS 02. 81 [13] Name identi? cation Call forwarding 02. 96 [24] 02. 82 [14], Call offering Call completion 02. 72 [11] 02. 91 [22] 02. 83 [15], 02. 93 [23], 22. 135 [69]a 02. 84 [16] 02. 85 [17] 02. 86 [18] 02. 87 [19] Multi-party Community of interest Charging Additional information transfer Call barring 02. 88 [20] Call priority 2. 67 [10] a For the multi-call service, there is no GSM TS available, but only a 3GPP TS (22. 135). 10 CAMEL: Intelligent Networks for the GSM, GPRS and UMTS Netwo rk Supplementary services may be provisioned for an individual basic service or for a group of basic services, e. g. a subscriber may have barring of all outgoing calls for all tele services and all bearer services, except SMS (tele service group 20). Such a subscriber is barred from establishing utgoing calls (except emergency calls), but may still send short messages. Some supplementary services may be activated or deactivated by the user. Examples include call forwarding and call barring. An operator may decide to bar certain subscribers or subscriber groups from modifying their supplementary services. Table 1. 3 shows the Supplementary Services. They are combined in service groups. Subscriptions are per individual Supplementary Service. The right-most column indicates the GSM technical speci? ations (TS) that specify the service requirement for the respective Supplementary Service(s). The chapters on CAMEL Phases 1–4 describe the interaction between CAMEL and the various supplementary services. Not all GSM networks support all supplementary services. Many of the supplementary services in GSM have equivalent supplementary services in ISDN. The ISDN supplementary services are described in ITU-T recommendations. GSM TS 02. 03 [3] describes how the supplementary services may be activated, deactivated and invoked. How to cite Cellular System Components, Papers

Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty Relationship- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theCustomer Satisfaction and Customer Loyalty Relationship. Answer: Introduction Competition in the finance sector is getting stiff due to the rapid increase of financial institutions. Many banks are looking for sustainable ways to deal with the high competition for long-term results. Many scholars and researchers are on the verge to study more about the operations in finance sector such as customer satisfaction, employee engagement, customer loyalty, quality of services and efficiency. These studies will give insights to better understand what customers want and thus improve for them to be served better (Arokiasamy, 2013) Banks must embark on quality service delivery to their customers for them to attract and maintain them for long-term business. The competitive edge and change of demands are forcing many banks to adapt to the delivery of excellent services to their customers. This study aims to investigate whether customers in the financial sector are well satisfied which will finally result in customer loyalty. Problem Statement Several studies have been associated with consumer loyalty and satisfaction as previously mentioned. Walsh et al (2008), argues that customer satisfaction on loyalty has more weight as switching costs and quality goes hand in hand with satisfaction. According to Parida Baksi (2011) ensuring the successful provision of services, you must ensure the good and quality relationship with your customers. It will generally result in customer loyalty and satisfaction. Organizations which provide the best services to their clients usually emerge as the most superior. Kheng et al. (2010), together with Gregoire Fisher (2008), claims that superiority performance results to increase in profit margin, market share, good customer relations, good customer loyalty and creation of the good business image. It is with no doubt a fully satisfied customer will always come back and refer to others for the good services. In the contemporary business environment, customer satisfaction is a priority. Marketing concepts developed by different researchers show that a customer who has been served well and satisfied will always come back without hesitation. Customer loyalty and satisfaction are the key long-term goals of any business. New customers are costlier as compared to old customers who just come back; loyal customers are more beneficial to the organization According to Mittal Frennea (2010), consumer loyalty is the end assessment of a specific item or service. It happens if the focused-on execution of the item or service is to earlier needs or desires of the client. The consumer loyalty with what the organization offers is foreordained by the general convictions of the items and administrations of the organization and the apparent execution of the items and services. Arnold Palmatier (2011), suggest that loyalty of a customer is the observable behavior of a customer that shows satisfaction and the morale to continue operating with the organization. A customer who wants to get back to the organization and purchase more or recommend to other people about the company indicates the comfort of the customer with the company. Loyal customers are a regular source of income as they help the organization market their products and services through referrals as well as their reliability. The problem that prompts this study is to investigate the connection between consumer loyalty and consumer satisfaction. It will be wholly compared and contrasted in the financial sectors such as banks. Aims and objectives This study aims to investigate how client loyalty and satisfaction is correlated with each other. Matzler et al. (2008), suggested that organization is able to meet the customers needs by measuring the level of their services. It means that organizations must work hard to ensure customer requirements are met in the most appropriate way. Study objectives are as follows: Investigate the correlation between customer loyalty and satisfaction Find out the advantages of customer satisfaction in an organization Investigate factors that influence client satisfaction and loyalty Determine organizations role in promoting and loyalty and satisfaction of consumers Come up with recommendations to assist financial institutions to improve on service delivery for customer satisfaction Brief methodology Questionnaires will be used to collect data from respondents. The questionnaire will have 4 divisions. Part one will include personal data such as sex, education, and religion. The second division will measure on participants expectation levels of service delivery in terms of quality. It will contain the areas that capture the services provided by the organization. It will have a scale of 1-5 from disagree to agree in all parts. Part three will determine the level of customers satisfaction which will provide the following questions for the respondents to answer: What is your satisfaction level provided by the nature of your account? How can you rate customer service by your bank? Are you satisfied with the loan services by your bank? Are you comfortable with the services offered by your bank? Part four will measure the levels of the respondent towards the companys loyalty. Data analysis methods and Secondary data A survey will be used to test the feasibility of the study. Findings for the prior conducted research will also be used to compare and contrast the results obtained. The respondents will be customers from local banks in Melbourne who have one or more accounts who will be tested on their behaviors, attitudes, expectations, and opinions. Quantitative research approach will be applied in this study. Considerations as those of gender, age, level of education and professionalism will also be put in place. Conclusion Despite many studies that have been carried out by different researchers in the field of service delivery, more studies need to be done so as to make the necessary changes in the finance sector. Technology should be included in future studies for measuring service quality. Future studies must be in line with the current trends in the finance sector to meet the consumer's requirements. References Arnold, T. J., Fang, E. E., Palmatier, R. W. (2011). The effects of customer acquisition and retention orientations on a firms radical and incremental innovation performance.Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,39(2), 234-251. Arokiasamy, A. R. (2013). The impact of customer satisfaction on customer loyalty and intentions to switch in the banking sector in Malaysia.The journal of commerce,5(1), 14-21. Grgoire, Y., Fisher, R. J. (2008). Customer betrayal and retaliation: when your best customers become your worst enemies.Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,36(2), 247-261. Kheng, L. L., Mahamad, O., Ramayah, T., Mosahab, R. (2010). The impact of service quality on customer loyalty: A study of banks in Penang, Malaysia.International journal of marketing studies,2(2), 57. Matzler, K., Fller, J., Renzl, B., Herting, S., Spth, S. (2008). Customer satisfaction with Alpine ski areas: the moderating effects of personal, situational, and product factors.Journal of Travel Research,46(4), 403-413. Mittal, V., Frennea, C. (2010). Customer satisfaction: a strategic review and guidelines for managers. Parida, B. B., Baksi, A. K. (2011). Customer retention and profitability: CRM environment.SCMS Journal of Indian Management,8(2), 66. Walsh, G., Evanschitzky, H., Wunderlich, M. (2008). Identification and analysis of moderator variables: investigating the customer satisfaction-loyalty link.European Journal of Marketing,42(9/10), 977-1004.

The Relationship Between Accounting And Bookkeeping Accounting Essay Example For Students

The Relationship Between Accounting And Bookkeeping Accounting Essay Like all the other of import facets of life, accounting has its ain history. The procedure of accounting can be traced back to at least 3600 Ancient Civilization, even back so, people kept records of the cost of stuffs and labor that is used for edifice constructions. Subsequently, come the development of Commerce in the 1400 s ( Mercantilism in Italy ) . However, the first publication of dual entry bookkeeping system of accounting is due to Monk Luca Pacioli in 1494 AD in Venice Italy. We will write a custom essay on The Relationship Between Accounting And Bookkeeping Accounting specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Today s dual entry accounting remains the same as Monk Luca Pacioli s dorsum so. Due to the uninterrupted development in the concern society, fiscal accounting has evolved enormously. As a consequence of the rapid growing in concerns and the ownership of big corporations, there was a demand to divide the proprietor s equity from directors. Consequently, directors had to do history for the usage of proprietor s capital and the extent of wealth creative activity. Over the old ages at that place has been an accelerated growing in the profession of accounting. During the twelvemonth of 1904, 50 old ages after the coming out of the accounting profession, the persons who really held the rubric of hired comptrollers was about 6000. As the twelvemonth base on ballss by, the figure of hired comptrollers increased. On one manus, it is said that accounting came approximately as a consequence of the alterations in the environment and social demands. While on the other manus, it is said that accounting came approximately because of the development of commercialism. Throughout the mediaeval period, harmonizing to the historiographer, Michael Chatfield observation, he believed that mediaeval accounting bureau laid the foundations for the philosophies of stewardship and conservativism, and the medieval epoch created the conditions for the rapid progress in accounting engineering that occurred during the Renaissance. Yet during the 1000s of old ages that has passed between the autumn of the Roman Empire and the publication of Monk Luca Pacioli s work, there was a period of accounting stagnancy occurred and any patterns of accounting exterior of Italy were by and large omitted from the history of accounting. For the period of the mediaeval clip, clerking was localized and centered on the specialised establishment of the feudal manor. In the class of that clip the treasury gave the preparers and users of the belongings instead than the existent proprietor the authorization to transport out activities. In those times the chief ground for such act is so that they can supervise the persons from the lesser portion of the socio-economic background. At some point in the 1086, the Conqueror, William took precedency of all belongingss in the name of his male monarch. William subsequently took up the duty of ciphering revenue enhancements due on the belongingss and this is known as the Domesday Book. The Pipe Roll besides known as the Great Roll of the Exchequer is the oldest English accounting record and this reflect the revenue enhancements, rent and mulcts collectible to the King of England from A.D. 1130 to 1830. During that clip wooden tally sticks were used for history maintaining. Whenever an single wages off his debt a wooden run stick would be cut and prepares by the financial officer as a dealing. And that would be their sort of reception. The financial officer would usually cut the tally stick harmonizing to the sum paid by the creditor. For case if the individual is paying 1000 lb, so the financial officer would cut the tally stick the size of a human manus as his reception. .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5 , .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5 .postImageUrl , .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5 , .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5:hover , .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5:visited , .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5:active { border:0!important; } .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5:active , .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5 .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uac835cb559e1b3fcf9d9a1ce1125dbe5:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Sin And Virtue Used In Stephen EssayThe lone manner concern of today s society could turn, flourish and respond to the demands of their stakeholders is by utilizing more precise accounting methods. Besides, the accounting brings forth the concern and economic history, as the development of accounting aid concern in doing more economical determinations. A small background has merely been given about accounting and when clerking was foremost recognized. Now we will take a expression at clerking and accounting and their relationship. But first, allow s take a expression at what clerking and accounting really are. Bookkeeping besides known as record maintaining is the procedure of roll uping, forming, hive awaying, and accessing the fiscal information base of an entity, which is needed for two basic intents ; easing the daily operations of the entity and fixing fiscal statements, revenue enhancement returns, and internal studies to directors. Those fiscal statements include gross revenues, purchases, income, grosss and payments by an person or administration. The individual responsible for clerking is referred to as a bookkeeper. At the same clip accounting is the systematic recording, analysing, sum uping and coverage of fiscal information for a concern or an administration over a period of clip. An comptroller is the single whom is responsible for accounting within a concern or an administration, and that individual is expected to follow the regulations and ordinances of the by and large accepted accounting rule. Bookkeeping and accounting are related in some ways as they both trade with the fiscal information of the concern or an administration. Bookkeeping is an indispensable portion of the accounting procedure and without bookkeeping the accounting procedure can non get down. That is, the readying of the concluding fiscal statements ( income statement and the statement of fiscal place ) . Bookkeeping by and large ends at the readying of the test balance and that statement is used to pull up the income statement and the statement of fiscal place which is done by the comptroller. In a nutshell, where the clerking procedure ends, the accounting procedure begins. Bookkeeping and accounting goes manus in manus as bookkeepers have to enter fiscal information harmonizing to a set of fiscal systems under a set of guidelines which are known as internal controls. These internal controls are developed by comptrollers and they manage and monitor the system every bit good. Internal controls were created to minimise mistakes that would hold been made by bookkeepers due to the fact that they would be entering a big figure of activities for the concern within a given clip span. Accountants design the clerking system in such a manner that they can easy acknowledge larceny, fraud, peculation and other endangering activities to the concern. Accountants depend on dependable and accurate fiscal information from bookkeepers to decently measure the fiscal place of the concern. If the bookkeeper fiscal information is wrong so the accountant fiscal statements would be wrong as good. Though, the accountant usually examines the bookkeeper s work before really describing it. In general the bookkeeper of the concern or administration is frequently referred to as the accountant helper. Bookkeeping and accounting depends on each other systems to efficaciously analyze, summarise and describe fiscal information of an administration or concern to the assorted stakeholders.

Chinese and Japanese Trade essays

Chinese and Japanese Trade essays In the duration of the years 1368 through 1868 the Europeans of Britain and Portuguese influenced the Chinese and Japanese greatly. The people of these two Countries not only contributed to the religious culture of the Chinese and Japanese but most of all they established a firm trade system that other countries picked up on. The Europeans were able to establish this trade by travel, knowledge, and an overpowering government. This change in their country helped them develop as a strong government and as people. In order to be able to begin trade with another country one country must be able to get to the opposing countrys land and over power their people and government. In this case the British and Portuguese were able to accomplish all that they need to get China to become trading partners with them. First, Britain took it upon them to get to the Chinese land, but not after the Portuguese got there first. In 1514 a Portuguese ship was able to get to the tip of China, and in 1557 the Chinese allowed them to set up a trading station in Macao. With these moves they were able to move in and try to get China to do what was needed to make the Portuguese land wealthier. During the 1500s the Portuguese were able to travel to Japan and try to take over their trade system also. Later, the British came to the Chinese land by way of ship. They set up a port during the late 1600s in Guangzhou. Then begin to work their way up the Chinese ladder of government. Along with travel to become a big trading partner with another country one must have knowledge to offer that country. The Portuguese was able to get in to the heads of the Chinese and Japanese by their religious advancements. They used the knowledge of astronomy to gain trust and admission into the inner part of to Chinese culture. Gradually they were able to get into the Chinese people heads and fed them knowledge that they were not ready for. This made the Chinese ...

Critical Evaluation of the Constraints Faced by Project Managers and Essay

Critical Evaluation of the Constraints Faced by Project Managers and How These Impact Project Scheduling and Planning - Essay Example The attention of the whole company is focussed on a particular problem that is of great concern to the consumer (the challenge). The rest of the activities in the company are synchronized with the challenge process, which makes sure that the challenge process is not piled up or it is starved because the needed inputs are not available. The bottleneck must be eliminated in any way possible and this increases the capability of the entire company (Jawa 2004, p1). For many years, project managers have been told to focus on constraints. In projects, a constraint is thought to be an important path, which is a series of activities that determine the least time required for the project to finish. Vanhoucke (2012, p192) further notes that the project management generally overlooks the scarce resources required by activities which are either on or off the critical path and probably by other projects (Vanhoucke 2012, p192). Goodpasture (2004, p211) also asserts that project constraint is a crit ical path. In other words, the project is constrained to a particular duration, and the constrained time cannot be shortened. The impact of the critical path is that the constrained throughput cannot be increased, and thus, the throughput is threatened if the critical path is not managed in a proper way (Goodpasture 2004, p211). It is worth noting that all projects have constraints. Not very long ago, the three main constraints (also known as the triple constraints) were the project management creed spoken by experienced project managers. The three main constraints that project managers face include scope, cost, and schedule. However, these are not the only constraints faced by project managers; other constraints include consumer satisfaction, budget, and quality. All the mentioned constraints have significant impact on the outcomes of the project, and that is why they get considerable attention (Heldman 2011, p23). Scope All projects are set out to generate a unique result or produ ct. Scope describes what the result or the product should be like. It considers the objectives and the goals of the project and defines what the project is attempting to achieve. The goals are then broken down into smaller elements until the work can be easily described. Scope can frequently change or grow during the course of the project. Thus, it is very crucial to document scope. Scope generally entails interchanges with the other constraints, and transformations in scope will affect budget, time, or both. Changes in the time or budget can also affect scope. For instance, if one is constructing a new house on a restricted or limited budget. The individual wants granite countertops in the bathroom, but he does not have sufficient money in the budget. Then, the scope has to be modified and a different material chosen for the countertops to avoid the necessity of going over the budget again (Heldman 2011, p23). Schedule Majority of the projects function under some form of deadline. If the project involves constructing a new shopping center that must be completed in time for the holiday shopping period, then the project is time-constrained. Schedules are developed on units of time thus; the word time is sometimes used in place of the word schedule when describing the triple constraints (Heldman 2011, p23). The time deadline governs the manner in which the project activities are completed and scheduled. The projector requestor or the stakeholders

Lenses Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Lenses - Research Paper Example Whenever a lens is surrounded by air, refraction of light takes place from the air into the lens, crossing through the lens and then refracting back into the air. Each refraction can lead to a change in the direction of light travel. There are two types of lenses, converging lenses, and diverging lenses. A converging lens is one that causes light rays that were initially parallel to the central axis to converge, while a diverging lens is one that causes such light rays to diverge. When an object is placed in front of any of the two types of lenses, light rays that can refract either into or out of the lens from the object to produce an image of the object. A lens can produce an object image only because it can bend light rays, but it can only do this only if its refraction index is different from that of the surrounding medium (Halliday, Resnick & Walker, 936). The single spot to which light rays that have been refracted by a lens are converging is known as the focal point. The dista nce from the lens to the focal point, often denoted by the letter f, is called the focal length. Every lens has its own focal length that forms its defining characteristic. A lens can have either a positive or a negative focal length, depending on the side of the lens on which an object is placed. When the focal point of a lens is on the opposite side of the lens from where an object is placed, the resulting focal length is positive. On the other hand, when the focal point is on the same side as the object, the focal length is negative. While these terminologies are useful convections used by scientists and engineers to characterize lenses as well as mirrors, they contain no real physical meanings (Kirkpatrick & Gregory, 367). Both converging and diverging lenses form different types of images, depending on where the object is placed. When an object is placed inside the focal point, the lens forms a virtual image that is on the same side of the lens as the object, and having the sam e orientation. Thus, a converging lens can form two types of images, real or virtual, depending on whether the object is placed inside or outside of the focal point. In the case of a diverging lens, the image formed is virtual that is on the same side of the lens as the object, and contains the same orientation. This is regardless of the object distance and whether it is placed inside or outside of the focal point. Just like in the case of mirrors, when the image is real the image distance is taken to be positive while when the image is virtual it is taken to be negative. However, the location from lenses of real and virtual images are the reverse of those belonging to mirrors. Real images form on the lens side that is opposite the object, while virtual images form on the side that the object is located (Benenson, 358). There are lens systems that are arrangements of a correction of lenses that have a common optical axis, and are mostly applied in the correction of image defects tha t are present in single lenses. If the positions of the principal planes of the single lens are known together with their total focus, then it is possible for an optical image to be constructed for a lens system. The image construction is similar with that of thick lens if there are only two principal planes. In addition to lens systems, there are lenses with

Like Water for Chocolate Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Like Water for Chocolate - Essay Example According to the De La Garza family tradition, the last-born daughter was not supposed to marry, or she would do so after taking care of her mother until her death. This role fell into the hands of Tita, who happened to be last born. As the family doctor, I pitied the role Tita had gotten as her birth right. It was a tradition that was both selfish, on the mother’s part, and denied Tita equal opportunities like her sisters’. Being a doctor from the United States of America, I saw this as a major infringement on Tita’s rights. When Tita fell in love with a young man named Pedro, I saw this as a chance for her to escape from traditional bondage. I was highly disappointed when Pedro was denied her hand in marriage because Mama Elena disallowed the marriage citing tradition that Tita can only marry after she is dead (Esquivel 78). According to my opinion, Mama Elena’s mistreatment and cruelty on Tita on numerous occasions, represents the same kind of treatment the civilians were receiving from the dictatorship, in governance (Esquivel 43). When Mama Elena imposed the marriage of Rosaura to Pedro, instead of Tita, strengthened my perception of the country’s leadership that was strongly rooted, in a tradition, which it used to oppress the civilians. I yearned for the day Tita would stand up to her mother and do as she wished. When Gertrudis run away and get banished by her mother, she had to come back as a general with the revolution (Esquivel 98). This gave me hope that it would be a sign to Tita, and other women, in Mexico that they can stand up against oppression and triumph. The day Tita stood up against her mother’s ghost and banished it, gave me a piece of mind since it showed me that she had acquired enough strength to be rid of her mother’s domination once and for all. The death of Roberto, Rosaura and Pedro’s son was a blessing in disguise because it gave me another chance at love. I fell in love

Triple Des Against A Brute Force Attack Computer Science Essay

Triple Des Against A Brute Force Attack Computer Science Essay Over the last few years, the Internet has evolved into a ubiquitous network and inspired the development of a variety of new applications in business and consumer markets. So, Multiprotocol Label Switching is another Challenge and a versatile solution to address the problems faced by present- day networks. Main objective of MPLS is to provide Security in the data exchanged. So, In this paper we have implemented Encryption Algorithms like AES, DES and Triple DES to provide sufficient levels of security for protecting the Confidentiality of the data in MPLS Network. This Paper also analyzes the Performance of these algorithms against Brute-Force Attack implemented in the MATLAB environment to protect the MPLS Network MPLS stands for Multiprotocol Label Switching, is a technology proposed by Internet engineering Task Force (IETF) it was designed to facilitate several problems areas in the internet including routing performance and is increasingly being adopted by service providers in their core networks. MPLS solutions are to be used with Layer2 and Layer 3 Protocols. MPLS has emerged as a potential solution for addressing traffic engineering, security and survivability for IP networks. So, a label is assigned to a packet when it enters the MPLS network at ingress Label Switched Router [1]. So, a label is a short fixed length identifier which is of 20 bits ranging from 0 to 19 that is used to forward the packets. Within the network the labels are used to route the packets without regard to the original packets header information. So, in this paper to secure the data which is attached with the label, various Encryption algorithms like AES, DES and Triple DES has been implemented on MPLS network. Ou r technique does not require any hardware, it is totally based on software.Following Sections discusses the proposed scheme. Section 2 discusses the Security Requirements of MPLS network. Section 3 gives the quick overview of the various encryption algorithms used in this technique. Section 4 walks through the used setup environment and the settings for the encryption algorithms on MPLS. This section also illustrates the performance evaluation methodology chosen settings to allow for a better comparison. Section 5 gives a thorough discussion about the implementation results. Finally, Section 6 concludes this paper by summarizes the key points and other related information. 2. Security Requirements of the MPLS Network Network Managers have many options for site to site connectivity like Traditional leased lines, ATM based connectivity and frame relay. But other two types of modern VPNs i.e MPLS and IPSec are becoming increasingly attractive to network managers [2]. In pure IP network it is easy to spoof IP addresses which is a key issue in Internet Security. But, because MPLS works internally with labels, instead of IP addresses, so it not so easy to breach the security. The very fact to make concept clear is that it is not possible to insert packets with wrong labels into the MPLS network from outside, since the customer edge(CE) is unaware of the MPLS core and thinks that it is sending IP packets to the router [3]. The intelligence is done in (PE) provider edge device where based on the configuration, the label is chosen and prepended to the packet. So, MPLS is more secure than normal IP addressing technique. But, the spoofing here can also be possible. The attacks like brute force attack can break the security, although it is not so easy, but it can do so. MPLS alone cannot provide security, it can be combined with IPSec to provide sufficient levels of secu rity. So, various encryption and hashing algorithms are used to maintain the confidentiality of the data. IPSec requires each side to authenticate with the other, so privacy is maintained in IPSec VPN through the use of encryption. A secure MPLS network provides the following facilities to its users [2]: Data Confidentiality: IPSec VPNs provide data confidentiality through robust encryption algorithms. It seeks to ensure data confidentiality by defining a single path between physical sites on a service provider network. This prevents attackers from accessing transmitted data unless they place sniffers on the service provider network. Though MPLS minimizes the chance that data may be intercepted, IPSec provides better confidentiality through encryption. Data Integrity: IPSec uses hashing algorithms to ensure data integrity. There are inherent methods as such to provide data integrity within MPLS VPNs. However, the odd of data being shared by a man-in-the-middle attack is low due to the separation address space and routing information provided by MPLS VPNs. Data Availability: IPSec relies on the Internet for transport. Although an attacker could not read the data, but it could DOS an IPSec VPN by entering false routes into the Internet Routing tables. MPLS VPNs rely on LSPs i.e. Label Switched Paths for transport and since LSPs have local significance only, spoofing is difficult to accomplish. Thus MPLS, can provide better data availability in this regard. Service Reliability: MPLS has the ability to protect the communication session against denial of service attacks. 3. REQUIREMENT OF ENCRYPTION ON LABELS IN MPLS NETWORK In this paper encryption on labels in MPLS network is proposed using AES, DES and Triple DES encryption algorithms. For implementing and evaluating above encryption algorithms we have done the following steps: Encrypt the data with one of the above mentioned algorithms. Encode the data according to MPLS. Brute Force Attack has been done. Time taken to find a correct key is measured against different key lengths. Data Label Encrypt Label Data MPLS Decrypt Secret Key Brute Force Attack Figure 1. Data Encryption This paper analyzes the effectiveness of AES, DES and Triple DES encryption algorithms against brute force attack on MPLS network. The comparison has been conducted by running brute force attack program against these algorithms. 3.1 Implementation Setup This section describes the implementation environment and the used system components. The implementation of DES, Triple DES and AES uses classes available in JAVA package javax.crypto. Separate functions for encryption and decryption have been implemented in MATLAB using JAVA cryptography API. Figure 2 JAVA Cryptography Package Brute Force program is implemented in MATLAB environment. This implementation is thoroughly tested and is optimized to give the maximum performance for the algorithm. 3.2 Methodology Used This Section will discuss the methodology and its related parameters like: system parameters, experiment factors and experiment initial settings. 3.2.1 System Parameters The experiments are conducted using Intel 64-bit processor with 32 GB of RAM. The program is written in MATLAB. The experiments will be performed couple times to assure that the results are consistent and are valid to compare the different algorithms .The brute force attack has been done using single PC. It can be enhanced by the use of parallel computers with high computational powers to decrease the time required to find the key for the above algorithms. 3.2.2 Experiment Factors In order to evaluate the performance of the compared algorithms against brute force program on MPLS networks, the experimental factors must be determined. The chosen factors here to determine the effectiveness of encryption algorithms are the key length and the time taken to breach an algorithm by brute force program. 3.2.3 Experimental Initial Setting We started the attack with 8 bit of key length and extended upto 64 bit. It can further increased upto supported key length of AES algorithm i.e 256 bits. But for this high computational power is required in terms of parallel computers to breach the algorithms. 4. Results and Discussions This Section will show the results obtained from running the brute force program on AES, DES and Triple DES. The results of implementation have been shown below in the form of graphs. The time of launch of brute force attack is shown at the start of the program as in Fig. 3. Figure 3 Screenshot of running brute force program The program exits on success of the attack on the encryption algorithm which is shown below in fig. 4 Figure 4. Screenshot of cracked algorithm The time required to break the encryption algorithm, actual encrypted string and the label applied, all are shown in fig. 5 Figure 5 Screenshot of various factors like time to break, actual encrypted string and the label applied It is highlighted here that the implementation has been performed assuming that the user has arrived at all the correct values of the key and only two values of the key is to be cracked. This has been done to save the time required. The key length can be optimized to reduce the time taken for encryption and decryption process so that it does not slow down the system. i) Effect of key length variation We compare the change in security performance by using different key lengths for encryption algorithms. Graphs are plotted between the time required to find the correct key and different key lengths. We have taken six different scenarios by increasing the length of the key. Table 1 DIFFERENT KEY LENGTHS Scenario Key length (Bits) 1 8 2 16 3 24 4 32 5 40 6 48 7 56 8 64 Following are the graphs for scenarios stated in table1. These graphs show the number of seconds required to breach the corresponding algorithm against brute force attack. Figure 5 Number of seconds required with key length of 8 bits Figure 6 Number of seconds required with key length of 16 bits Figure 7 Number of seconds required with key length of 24 bits Figure 8 Number of seconds required with key length of 32 bits Figure 9 Number of seconds required with key length of 40 bits Figure 10 Number of seconds required with key length of 48 bits Figure 11 Number of seconds required with key length of 56 bits Figure 12 Number of seconds required with key length of 64 bits The above graphs show the time taken to find the key by the brute force program on DES, Triple DES and AES for different key lengths. From these graphs it is analyzed that time taken by brute force attack increases exponentially with the increase in key length. It is clear from the graphs that in case of AES algorithm, brute force attack takes more time to find a key. Therefore, it has a better security than DES and Triple DES. i) Effectiveness of algorithms against brute force attack The results of the iterations of brute force program have been shown in the below figure in Table 2. This graph is plotted in MATLAB environment. The above data and graph represents the effectiveness of AES, DES and Triple DES algorithms against brute force attack. It is evident from the data presented that AES proves to be of better security against the brute force attack than DES and Triple DES for securing MPLS network. Figure 13 Effectiveness of AES, DES and Triple DES against brute force attack Table 2 Number of seconds required to breach DES, Triple DES and AES KeyLength (bits) DES (Seconds Triple DES (Sec) AES (Sec) 8 0.27 0.31 0.55 16 39.59 52.11 110.44 24 1442.52 4575.13 17443.22 32 3085.02 10534.81 36758.31 40 7765.12 21435.13 78252.12 48 15229.91 44671.11 156277.81 56 30118.73 89212.15 330115.42 64 65416.91 122294.54 775313.21 5. CONCLUSIONS The presented results showed that AES has a better security than DES and Triple DES against brute force attack since AES takes more time to break by brute force program for a given key length. Time taken by AES algorithm to break the security considerably increases with the increase in key lengths. respectively.

Immigration :: essays research papers

PERMANENT RESIDENCE / IMMIGRANT VISAS  · Returning Residents  · Family based immigration (if close relatives citizens/residents in USA)  · DV-2003 Green Card Lottery  · Religious workers  · International adoption  · Green Card through investment  · Vaccinations  · Procedures for marriage of a U.S. citizen to a foreign spouse Family Based Immigrations Purpose: The information included in the package will provide you with all the tools necessary for assessing the eligibility requirements understanding the procedure, completing the necessary applications, attaching and gathering the required supporting documents and filing the documents for the petition. Our simple easy-to-follow guide will also prepare you for what to expect when dealing with the Immigration and what you should expect after filing the documentation. Requirements: A citizen or lawful permanent resident of the U.S. can file a petition for his or her immediate relatives to immigrate to the USA. Immediate relatives of a US citizen would be husband, wife or unmarried child under 21. Unmarried child over 21, or married child of any age. Brother or sister if citizen is at least 21 years old. Parents of citizen if citizen is at least 21 years old. A lawful permanent resident may establish a petition for the following relatives: husband, wife or unmarried child. (Remember this information may vary depending on individual circumstances.) Content: 50-page book, information folder, Immigration Principals Guide, and a package of original INS forms. Instruction guide with how-to explanations and easy to follow step-by-step procedures. Information on the eligibility requirements, supporting documentation, submission addresses. Updated filing fees, listings of US Embassies and Consulates, Immigration & Naturalization contact information, updated Visa Bulletin with processing cut-off dates, glossary of Immigration terms and abbreviations, instructions on filing, document translation information, medical examination information, checklist, photo specification guide and helpful hints. Sample Forms: I-130, I-485, I-765, 2 x G-325A, INS Forms: I-130, I-864, I-485, I-765, I-693, WR-702, 2x G-325A. Information about the AFFIDAVIT OF SUPPORT "I hereby declare, on oath, that I absolutely and entirely renounce and abjure all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state or sovereignty, of whom or which I have heretofore been a subject or citizen; that I will support and defend the Constitution and laws of the United States of America against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the armed forces of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform work of national importance under

Cinderella Argument Paper Essay

From generation to generation stories are always changing. Fairy tales like Cinderella go from mean step sisters to nice sisters, fairy god mother to a tree. After reading 5 different versions of Cinderella I had to choose which I would decide to read, above the others to my favorite child. After difficult thinking I have chosen the Walt Disney’s version of Cinderella for many great reasons. I have chosen the Walt Disney’s version because I feel it is the most fitting for children over all the others which are best suitable for older teens. Walt Disney’s version is the ideal story beginning with â€Å"Once upon a time† and ending with â€Å"lived in the palace and were happy ever after, too†. The fairy tale story of pretty girl by the name of Cinderella who lived with her step mother and 2 step sisters who treat her horrible having her cook, clean, and bake, meanwhile having no rights to do anything without her step mother’s permission. A great ball was given by the king, for the prince and every young girl in the kingdom were invited, even Cinderella†¦ Although the nasty step mother told her no. Cinderella cried her heart out, until an older woman appeared in front of her telling her, I am your fairy godmother and she said â€Å"You are going to the Ball†. Before you knew it with the powers of the step mother Cinderella was beautifully dressed and a coach pulled by horses was ready to take her. Cinderella was told that at the stroke of midnight the powers would be gone and she would, means she would have to be gone. Although no one knowing who she was, she caught the prince’s eye. Forgetting to keep her eye on the clock, at 12 she rushed out losing one of her glass slippers. Every girl in the land tried hard to fit into her lost slipper, until Cinderella was forced to try it on, and it fit her perfectly. Cinderella became the prince’s bride and lived happily ever after. All similar, but yet different, In â€Å"Cinderella†, by Anne Sexton there are minor differences that pointed out to me making me not choose this particular story for my child. Besides the story being set up like a poem, I found this to be more difficult for a younger child to understand. This story starts off stating 4 extremely short but successful stories then leading into Cinderella which in my opinion isn’t needed to understand the story. As the story goes on in line 32 they refer to Cinderella looking like Al Jolson, which no kid would understand causing another story within a story about who Al Jolson is. In Walt Disney’s Cinderella, Cinderella is forced to try the slipper on, after her sisters try it on and are unsuccessful. In both â€Å"Cinderella† by Anne Sexton, and â€Å"Cinderella† by Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm, the step sisters decide to cut body parts to fit into the slipper. One cutting a toe off and the other cutting part of her heel off, until not long after, with help from the fairy god mother, or Cinderella’s mother that the prince finds out. I feel that blood and cutting off body parts because you don’t fit the characteristics you want so you can be with a man isn’t a good trait to teach your children. Lastly In both â€Å"Cinderella† by Anne Sexton, and â€Å"Cinderella† by Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm, the fairy (mother) were doves who pecked the eyes out of both step sisters for the way they treated Cinderella. The step sisters treated Cinderella horrible but did not deserve to have their eyes pecked out. This teaches children a bad lesson as well as giving them a horrible view to picture. Clearly you can now understand why I have chosen what I have. After reading all 5 wonderful versions, Walt Disney’s Cinderella adapted by Campbell Grant is the best for any child, especially mine. After reading a happy story there is a lot less you’ll need to explain to your child that is unnecessary to be explained to until they are older. The Walt Disney’s version I feel it is the most fitting for children over all the others which are best suitable for older teens.

Individual Liberty v. Public Health essays

Individual Liberty v. Public Health essays In Typhoid Mary, Mary Mallon is isolated on North Brother Island from 1907 to 1910 and again from 1915 until she dies in 1938. Mary Mallon is striped of her civil liberties and is unwillingly quarantined to preserve public health. This brings about an interesting issue, an issue that is just as important today with regard to AIDS as it was nearly a century ago with typhoid. Many have suggested, then and now, that if an individual endangers the public health of the community that that persons liberties should become secondary to the safety of the community. However, people that contract diseases are unwilling victims of it and they too are members of the community. There must be a balance. While protecting the larger community, the individual must too be protected. Ones individual liberties should not be denied in order to protect public health. When facing a public health concern like a contagious disease, isolating people with the disease does not guarantee its elimination but it does rob these people of their freedoms. The purpose of this essay is to suggest that protecting an individuals liberties is just as important as protecting public health and that isolation should not be used as a method of preventing the spread of disease. Using two prime examples we will look at how isolation violates civil liberties. The first example is of Mary Mallons isolation. This example illustrates that a well-informed, cooperative carrier, can be a far more useful tool than isolation. The second example is of Cubas national HIV/AIDS containment program. From this example one can see the negative impact that isolation has on the stricken and the community and that isolation, as a means of preventing the spread of disease ultimately does not work. Mary Mallon arrives in the United States in 1896 at the age of fifteen. Although she is poorly educated and unskilled, Mallon is bright and spirited. She mov...

The Domestication History of Cotton (Gossypium)

The Domestication History of Cotton (Gossypium) Cotton (Gossypium sp.) is one of the most important and earliest domesticated non-food crops in the world. Used primarily for its fiber, cotton was domesticated independently in both the Old and New Worlds. The word cotton originated from the Arabic term al qutn, which became in Spanish algodà ³n and cotton in English. Key Takeaways: Domestication of Cotton Cotton is one of the earliest domesticated non-food crops, independently domesticated at least four different times in four different parts of the world.  The first cotton domesticate was from the wild tree form in Pakistan or Madagascar at least 6,000 years ago; the next oldest was domesticated in Mexico about 5,000 years ago.  Cotton processing, taking the cotton bolls and making them into fibers, is a global technique; spinning those fibers into strings for weaving was anciently accomplished by the use of spindle whorls in the New World and spinning wheels in the Old World.   Nearly all the cotton produced in the world today is the New World species Gossypium hirsutum, but before the 19th century, several species were grown on different continents. The four domesticated Gossypium species of the Malvaceae family are G. arboreum L., domesticated in the Indus Valley of Pakistan and India; G. herbaceum L. from Arabia and Syria; G. hirsutum from Mesoamerica; and G. barbadense from South America. All four domestic species and their wild relatives are shrubs or small trees which are traditionally grown as summer crops; domesticated versions are highly drought- and salt-tolerant crops that grow well in marginal, arid environments. Old World cotton has short, coarse, weak fibers that are today primarily used for stuffing and quilt making; New World cotton has higher production demands but provides longer and stronger fibers and higher yields. Making Cotton Wild cotton is photo-period sensitivein other words, the plant begins to germinate when the day length reaches a certain point. Wild cotton plants are perennial and their form is sprawling. Domestic versions are short, compact annual shrubs which do not respond to changes in day lengththats an advantage if the plant grows in places with cool winters because both wild and domestic kinds of cotton are frost-intolerant. Cotton fruits are capsules or bolls which contain several seeds covered by two kinds of fiber: short ones called fuzz and long ones called lint. Only the lint fibers are useful for making textiles, and the domestic plants have larger seeds covered with comparatively abundant lint. Cotton is traditionally harvested by hand, and then the cotton is ginnedprocessed to separate the seeds from the fiber. After the ginning process, the cotton fibers are batted with a wooden bow to make them more flexible and carded with a hand comb to separate the fibers before spinning. Spinning twists the individual fibers into a yarn, which can be completed by hand with a spindle and spindle whorl (in the New World) or with a spinning wheel (developed in the Old World). Old World Cotton Cotton was first domesticated in the Old World about 7,000 years ago; the earliest archaeological evidence for cotton use is from the Neolithic occupation of Mehrgarh, in the Kachi Plain of Balochistan, Pakistan, in the sixth millennium BC. Cultivation of G. arboreum began in the Indus Valley of India and Pakistan, and then eventually spread over Africa and Asia, whereas G. herbaceum was first cultivated in Arabia and Syria. The two main species, G. arboreum and G. herbaceum, are genetically very different and probably diverged well before domestication. Specialists agree that the wild progenitor of G. herbaceum was an African species, whereas the ancestor of G. arboreum is still unknown. Regions of the possible origin of the G. arboreum wild progenitor are likely Madagascar or the Indus Valley, where the most ancient evidence for cultivated cotton has been found. Gossypium arboreum Abundant archaeological evidence exists for the initial domestication and use of G. arboreum, by the Harappan (aka Indus Valley) civilization in Pakistan. Mehrgarh, the earliest agricultural village in the Indus Valley, holds multiple lines of evidence of cotton seeds and fibers beginning about 6000 BP. At Mohenjo-Daro, fragments of cloth and cotton textiles have been dated to the fourth millennium BCE, and archaeologists agree that most of the trade that made the city grow was based on cotton exportation. Raw material and finished cloth were exported from South Asia into Dhuweila in eastern Jordan by 6450–5000 years ago, and to Maikop (Majkop or Maykop) in the northern Caucasus by 6000 BP. Cotton fabric has been found at Nimrud in Iraq (8th–7th centuries BCE), Arjan in Iran (late 7th–early 6th centuries BCE) and Kerameikos in Greece (5th century BCE). According to Assyrian records of Sennacherib (705–681 BCE), cotton was grown in the royal botanical gardens at Nineveh, but cool winters there would have made large-scale production impossible. Because G. arboreum is a tropical and subtropical plant, cotton agriculture did not spread outside the Indian subcontinent until thousands of years after its domestication. Cotton cultivation is first seen in the Persian Gulf at Qalat al-Bahrain (ca 600–400 BCE), and in North Africa at Qasr Ibrim, Kellis and al-Zerqa between the 1st and 4th centuries CE. Recent investigations at Karatepe in Uzbekistan have found cotton production dated between ca. 300–500 CE. G. arboreum is thought to have been introduced into China as an ornamental plant about 1,000 years ago. Cotton may have been grown in the Xinjiang (China) province cities of Turfan and Khotan by the 8th century CE. Cotton was finally adapted to grow in more temperate climates by the Islamic Agricultural Revolution, and between 900–1000 CE, a boom in cotton production spread into Persia, Southwest Asia, North Africa and the Mediterranean Basin. Gossypium herbaceum G. herbaceum is much less well-known than G. arboreum. Traditionally it is known to grow in African open forests and grasslands. Characteristics of its wild species are a taller plant, compared to the domesticated shrubs, smaller fruit, and thicker seed coats. Unfortunately, no clear domesticated remains of G. herbaceum have been recovered from archaeological contexts. However, the distribution of its closest wild progenitor suggests a northward distribution toward North Africa, and the Near East. New World Cotton Among the American species, G. hirsutum was apparently cultivated first in Mexico, and G. barbadense later in Peru. However, a minority of researchers believe, alternatively, that the earliest type of cotton was introduced into Mesoamerica as an already domesticated form of G. barbadense from coastal Ecuador and Peru. Whichever story ends up to be correct, cotton was one of the first non-food plants domesticated by the prehistoric inhabitants of the Americas. In the Central Andes, especially in the north and central coasts of Peru, cotton was part of a fishing economy and a marine-based lifestyle. People used cotton to make fishing nets and other textiles. Cotton remains have been recovered in many sites on the coast especially in residential middens. Gossypium hirsutum (Upland cotton) The oldest evidence of Gossypium hirsutum in Mesoamerica comes from the Tehuacan valley and has been dated between 3400 and 2300 BCE. In different caves of the region, archaeologists affiliated to the project of Richard MacNeish found remains of fully domesticated examples of this cotton. Recent studies have compared bolls and cotton seeds retrieved from excavations in Guila Naquitz Cave, Oaxaca, with living examples of wild and cultivated G. hirsutum punctatum growing along the east coast of Mexico. Additional genetic studies (Coppens dEeckenbrugge and Lacape 2014) support the earlier results, indicating that G. hirsutum was likely originally domesticated in the Yucatn Peninsula. Another possible center of domestication for G. hirsutum is the Caribbean. In different eras and among different Mesoamerican cultures, cotton was a highly demanded good and a precious exchange item. Maya and Aztec merchants traded cotton for other luxury items, and nobles adorned themselves with woven and dyed mantles of the precious material. Aztec kings often offered cotton products to noble visitors as gifts and to army leaders as payment. Gossypium barbadense (Pima cotton) G. barbadense cultivars are known for their production of high-quality fiber and called variously Pima, Egyptian, or Sea Island cotton. The first clear evidence of domesticated Pima cotton comes from the Ancà ³n-Chillà ³n area of the central coast of Peru. The sites in this area show the domestication process began during the Preceramic period, beginning about 2500 BCE. By 1000 BCE the size and shape of Peruvian cotton bolls were indistinguishable from todays modern cultivars of G. barbadense. Cotton production began on the coasts, but eventually moved inland, facilitated by the construction of canal irrigation. By the Initial Period, sites such as Huaca Prieta contained domestic cotton 1,500 to 1,000 years before pottery and maize cultivation. Unlike in the old world, cotton in Peru was initially part of subsistence practices, used for fishing and hunting nets, as well as textiles, clothing and storage bags. Sources Bouchaud, Charlà ¨ne, Margareta Tengberg, and Patricia Dal Pr. Cotton Cultivation and Textile Production in the Arabian Peninsula During Antiquity; the Evidence from Madà ¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢in Sà ¢lih (Saudi Arabia) and Qal’at Al-Bahrain (Bahrain). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 20.5 (2011): 405–17. Print.Brite, Elizabeth Baker, and John M. Marston. Environmental Change, Agricultural Innovation, and the Spread of Cotton Agriculture in the Old World. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 32.1 (2013): 39–53. Print.Coppens dEeckenbrugge, Geo, and Jean–Marc Lacape. Distribution and Differentiation of Wild, Feral, and Cultivated Populations of Perennial Upland Cotton ( PLoS ONE 9.9 (2014): e107458. Print.Gossypium hirsutum L.) in Mesoamerica and the Caribbean.Du, Xiongming, et al. Resequencing of 243 Diploid Cotton Accessions Based on an Updated a Genome Identifies the Genetic Basis of Key Agronomic Traits. Nature Genetics 50.6 (2018): 796–802. Print.Mou lherat, Christophe, et al. First Evidence of Cotton at Neolithic Mehrgarh, Pakistan: Analysis of Mineralized Fibres from a Copper Bead. Journal of Archaeological Science 29.12 (2002): 1393–401. Print. Nixon, Sam, Mary Murray, and Dorian Fuller. Plant Use at an Early Islamic Merchant Town in the West African Sahel: The Archaeobotany of Essouk–Tadmakka (Mali). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 20.3 (2011): 223–39. Print.Reddy, Umesh K., et al. Genome-Wide Divergence, Haplotype Distribution and Population Demographic Histories for Gossypium Hirsutum and Gossypium Barbadense as Revealed by Genome–Anchored SNPs. Scientific Reports 7 (2017): 41285. Print.Renny–Byfield, Simon, et al. Independent Domestication of Two Old World Cotton Species. Genome Biology and Evolution 8.6 (2016): 1940–47. Print.Wang, Maojun, et al. Asymmetric Subgenome Selection and Cis-Regulatory Divergence During Cotton Domestication. Nature Genetics 49 (2017): 579. Print.Zhang, Shu–Wen, et al. Mapping of Fiber Quality Qtls Reveals Useful Variation and Footprints of Cotton Domestication Using Introgression Lines. Scientific Reports 6 (2016): 31954. Print. Updated by K. Kris Hirst